There’s this long-standing idea that Benjamin Franklin, one of America’s Founding Fathers, had a soft spot for turkeys. So much so, in fact, that American lore tells of him advocating for the turkey to adorn the United States Presidential Seal.

This story is a myth, unfortunately. However, like with all tall tales, there is some kernel of truth. Franklin did have some warm thoughts about the turkey, but he never advocated for it as a political symbol. Rather, he occasionally remarked about his worn feeling about the eagle. And, in a specific letter to his daughter, he remarked once that the eagle on the seal of Cincinnati, Ohio looked a lot like a turkey. He then went on to opine about the merits of the bird, saying:

“For the Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America… He is besides, though a little vain & silly, a Bird of Courage, and would not hesitate to attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on.”

Some may be disappointed to learn the truth of Franklin’s true relationship with the turkey. However, don’t discount Franklin’s statement in his letter. Perhaps more than any other American creature–be it the eagle, the beaver, the moose, or the bison–the wild turkey represents the New World better than anything else. Charismatic and enigmatic, the turkey is perhaps the most important North American animal.  

The Lives and Times of Turkeys

So, what are turkeys like? Well, they are a flexible, adaptable species. They’re generalists, meaning they can thrive in a number of varied conditions and exploit a wider variety of resources. Typically they’re foragers who prefer to eat mast–the fruits and seeds of shrubs, trees, woody vines, and so on–but they are also omnivorous. Turkeys will eat everything from spiders and worms to tadpoles and small lizards, depending upon availability. And, when all else fails and food is scarce, they will turn to eating wild rye, Kentucky bluegrass, and other available food sources.

They’re also very big. They are the largest gallinaceous bird in the New World, standing 3 to 4 feet tall in adulthood and weighing between 10-40 pounds. With this size comes a relatively short wingspan–just up to around 6 feet. Compared to other birds, this is a short wingspan relative to weight.

While they spend most of their time on the ground, turkeys are able to fly. Their wings appear to be geared more toward rapid acceleration, helping them get up into trees quickly to either settle in for the night or escape predators (sometimes maybe both). And, when necessary, they can fly distances of up to a mile.

Wild and Ocellated Turkeys

Today, there are two turkey species living in North America: the wild turkey, and the ocellated turkey.

The ocellated turkey is limited in range and population size. They are found in the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize, and Guatemala, and are estimated to have population numbers somewhere past 50,000. Compared anatomically to wild turkeys, they are smaller and have shorter legs; as well, male ocellated turkeys lack the distinctive “beards” of their northern counterparts. The feature that sets the ocellated turkey apart most, however, is the colorful and iridescent feathers adorning its body. Its coloration is far more bold and dramatic than wild turkeys, making it a gorgeous bird to admire from afar.

Wild turkeys are fairly bigger animals with a wider geographic range. They can be found from southern Mexico all the way up through the United States and into small sections of southern Canada. All turkey lineages–extant and extinct–show sexual dimorphism, and it is abundantly apparent in the wild species. Males have a distinctive red neck and throat, on which they have these fleshy sort of overhangs known as wattles. These are primarily used as a display during breeding season, along with another protuberance on their snouts called a snood. Both ocellated and wild turkeys have snoods, but they are much more developed in the former.

Because the wild turkey is so widely distributed in North America, different populations have evolved. Today, we recognize six distinct subspecies:

• [South] Mexican wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo)

• Eastern wild turkey (M. g. silvestris)

• Florida wild turkey (M. g. osceola)

• Merriam’s wild turkey (M. g. merriami)

• Rio Grande wild turkey (M. g. intermedia)

• Gould’s wild turkey (M. g. mexicana)

Scientists determine the distinctions between subspecies of wild turkey based on geographic distribution and morphological characteristics. The physical features they look at include size, coloration/iridescence of plumage, leg color, and coloration of the tip and base of each feather.

Turkeys can be mysterious in many ways, but perhaps the most enigmatic thing about them is their common name. How the h*ck did they get to be called “turkeys” in the first place? While the answer to this question isn’t exactly clear, some ideas have been thrown out there.

The most popular explanation for the turkey’s common name is simple confusion during their shipment in Europe between the 16th and 19th centuries. We’ll get more into how they got to Europe later, but it’s thought that during their import, turkeys often got confused with another bird. Turkish guinea fowl were also an imported/exported good, and because of some familial resemblances, often got confused with their New World cousins.

While this explanation is clear and simple, it’s not the only one out there. Some hypothesize the name “turkey” has to do with the sounds the birds make. Since (apparently?) turkeys make a turk-turk sound, that’s how the common name came about. It seems like a bit of stretch, and more work to support the hypothesis would need to be done.

A more logical possibility might have to do with who was handling the import of turkeys. Jewish poultry merchants represented the majority of importers who helped introduce the bird to Europe. And, in Hebrew, the world “tukki” means “peacock.” Given that even Linnaeus was calling turkeys peafowl and guinea fowl when he scientifically named them, it’s not a big leap to imagine these Jewish merchants were using a linguistic shorthand based on words they already had for similar animals.

A Rough Evolutionary Timeline

So, where did the turkey come from? It’s an interesting question with an answer that’s still not entirely clear. Limited fossil record evidence exists for scientists to work from, but there’s enough to suggest that turkeys have been around in North America for a long time.

Arrival in North America

The most important question about wild turkey evolution–and perhaps the least clear–is how they first appeared in North America. Their taxonomic family, Meleagris, is a subfamily of Phasianidae–a large family of mostly ground-dwelling birds that includes gamebirds like grouse, pheasants, and quail. Turkeys diverged from a common phasianine ancestor, though how and when aren’t exactly clear.

Turkeys probably migrated into North America somewhere toward the end of the Oligocene and beginning of the Miocene–around 23-28 million years ago (Mya). We still can’t say exactly for sure whether the earliest turkey-like birds evolved in North America as a consequence of migration and then isolation, or whether they were turkey-like before they arrived.

Regardless, we see the first fossil evidence of turkey ancestors appear during the early Miocene in Florida–about 23-15 Mya. Rhegminornis calobates was the smallest of the turkeys, and was more likely an intermediate species between phasianine and meleagridine forms. Truer turkeys don’t appear until the late Miocene in Nebraska with another small species, Proagriocharis kimballensis. While both of these species fall within the turkey lineage, it’s currently thought they aren’t direct ancestors–rather, they represent sister taxa to the ancestor that gave way to our modern wild turkeys.

The First Modern Turkeys Appear

The first direct ancestor to wild turkeys appeared sometime during the Pliocene. Species discovered past this point appear to represent a straight descent to our modern turkeys, starting somewhere between 6-5 Mya. Discovered species in this timeline (I’m not sure entirely of the order) include: M. anza, M. progenes, M. leopoldi, and M. crassipes. At the end of this line was a common ancestor that (potentially) gave way to the three most modern turkey species:

• M. gallopavo

• M. ocellata

• M. californica

The ocellated turkey (M. ocellata) diverged from wild turkeys at the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Where M. californica–the California turkey–sits in this evolutionary history, however, is not entirely clear.

We know the California turkey better than other fossil turkeys due to their abundance at the La Brea Tar Pits. They were a distinct species that arose in a limited section of California as a result of geographic isolation, and they died out around 10,000 years ago (Kya). It’s also not apparent when they first developed. However, they first appeared possibly during the Pleistocene. California turkeys might also be more closely related to ocellated rather than wild turkeys, but this idea is still up for debate.

Genetic Diversification

The wild turkey (M. gallopavo) made it through the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, and then began diversifying into the subspecies we know today. From research into the genetics of wild turkeys, we know that all six subspecies fall into three distinct genetic groupings. These groups emerged through the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary and into our current age, and tell us a lot about their story before human discovery and domestication.

Presently, it’s believed that M. g. mexicana–Gould’s wild turkey–represents the relict population of wild turkeys. Research into their genetics suggests they are the ancestral wild turkey lineage to today’s subspecies.

During the Pliocene and into the Pleistocene (around 3.4 Mya), mexicana expanded their range into modern-day Arizona and New Mexico, as well as toward the central US. After diversification, mexicana populations eventually shrank and reduced in range down to where we find them today. In this reduction, they became more isolated from the other two groups. Therefore, geneticists can establish them as a unique group in comparison to others.

Merriam’s turkey (M. g. merriami) is the second distinct genetic wild turkey population, and they diversified from mexicana. It’s not entirely clear why they represent their own genetic group, but geographic isolation might be an influencing factor. While both species/groups occupy similar habitats, significant barriers between their ranges include the Sonora-Mojave and Chihuahuan deserts.

The third genetic grouping includes all remaining turkey subspecies: Mexican (M. g. gallopavo), Eastern (M. g. silvestris), Florida (M. g. osceola), and Rio Grande (M. g. intermedia). From this group we get domestic and commercial turkeys. Why all the rest of wild turkey subspecies are clumped into one group is also not clear, but they also likely appear because of geographic factors.

Current hypotheses suggest that this third group broke off from the mexicana population and became isolated from them as a result of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB). The relict mexicana population was likely stuck on the southern side of this plateau, which limited contact between the two populations. This allowed for the third genetic group to arise and spread northward into the Central and Eastern US.

All these genetic populations do pretty well through the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary; evidence shows us that between 130 to 110 Kya, they expand their geographic distribution and build stable populations. And, until a decline about 10 Kya–possibly related to glaciation events–maintained that stability. From that decline onward, we see another important factor come into play in their evolution, one that still impacts them today–interaction with humans.

Turkeys: A Cultural History

The wild turkey is an important cultural animal–not just in North America, but globally. Apart from being the quintessential symbol of Thanksgiving and the notion of the United States as a “land of plenty,” it has a level of importance that stretches back further than Pilgrims and Conquistadors. For thousands of years, the wild turkey has been a vital part of ancient and modern American culture and heritage.

Importance to Ancient American Peoples

Today’s domestic and commercial turkeys descend from ancestors first cultivated by Mesoamerican peoples in central Mexico. Both the Aztecs and Maya revered the turkey, and current archaeological evidence shows their efforts to domesticate them weren’t geared towards agricultural use.

Turkey bones recovered from Mesoamerican archaeological sites are rarely found in domestic refuse (trash, coprolites, etc.). Rather, they appear buried in temples and human graves often. In combination with ancient iconography depicting turkeys as gods, this points to domesticated turkeys as religious symbols. They were likely used for rituals, sacrifices, and to stand-in as physical representations of deities.

Native American peoples of the US were more utilitarian with their interactions with turkeys. Cultures in the Southwest had their own domesticates, and primarily appear to have used them as a source of dietary protein. In addition, they used their bones and feathers for practical uses. However, like their Mesoamerican counterparts, Southwest US natives also used turkey feathers to adorn headdresses and other regalia.

In the Northeastern US, natives had a relationship to wild turkeys that was fundamentally different. While they relied on them for food and their byproducts, native peoples in the Northeast didn’t cultivate any domestic turkey stocks. Instead, they fostered a local ecology that encouraged the birds to thrive. Conducting what is known as “selective burning,” they created forests in many different states of ecological succession, encouraging growth of areas that resembled boundary areas between grasslands and forest.

These boundary areas were ideal habitats for a host of wildlife species–including wild turkeys. As the birds thrived, the natives would take from their stock only when they were at their most plentiful. This method of ecology management allowed New England peoples to avoid overuse of any one species and work with the seasonal shifts and other natural cycles that already influenced the local flora and fauna.

Domestication

Even though we know why the first turkeys were domesticated, how and when aren’t exactly clear. We do know a couple things for sure, however.

First, we know that today’s domestic/commercial turkeys come from a stock that was first cultivated somewhere in central Mexico. As well, we know that Mesoamerican peoples preferred wild rather than ocellated turkeys for domestication. Why this is the case is up for debate, especially because ocellated turkeys are concentrated in the Yucatan peninsula where the Maya lived. There is evidence they were sometimes held in captivity by Mesoamericans, but it seems as though they didn’t reproduce well in captivity–something vital to the domestication process.

There’s no clear date on when domestication began, but some studies suggest it might have begun as early as 800 BCE. More concrete evidence shows that domesticated turkeys were present in the highlands of Michoacan, Mexico between 700-200 BCE, and that their presence in Mesoamerican cultures continued southward. By at least 180 AD there were domestic stocks in the Tehuacan Valley (in modern-day Puebla), and bones dated from between the 7th and 8th centuries show they had reached all the way to Guatemala.

We also know that domestication happened with both the Mesoamerican and Southwest US peoples. This was occurring at the same time and from different populations in the same genetic group. However, all of today’s domestic turkeys descend from the Mesoamerican stocks only. This is likely due to the influence of Spanish colonialism.

The Spanish arrival to Mexico and Central America would permanently change the fate of domestic turkeys. Sadly, their conquest and colonization of the region destroyed the native peoples’ populations. This resulted in a major decline in turkey husbandry. Meanwhile, the Spanish took the domesticated turkeys they found and brought them back home. Heavily-selective breeding in Europe would eventually create many of today’s commercial breeds.

The English would eventually get their hands on domestic turkeys and actually bring them to the Eastern US, having no idea of the wild populations already in place. By the 18th century, English colonists were raising large numbers of the domestic stocks for a growing colonial territory and, eventually, independent nation.

Wild Turkeys Decline in Post-Colonial America

It should come as no surprise that, even after the US had been established and colonialism had ended, New World natives (humans, flora, and fauna like) still suffered. Manifest Destiny and westward expansion were lethal to wild turkeys. Before European arrival and settlement, turkeys were present in 39 continental US States and parts of Ontario, Canada. As soon as colonists arrived and then later moved westward, this changed.

Pioneers and colonists were hunting turkeys year-round. They were important source of food and, while domestic stocks were being raised, the nation was growing fast. Market hunters felt intense pressures to provide meat to rising American populations, responding by taking as many turkeys as possible. As this over-hunting occurred, large swaths of land were cleared for agriculture. The old-growth forests turkeys had lived in for thousands of years were now decimated, depleting the birds of the resources and habitats they once relied on. This trend continued further and further west, massively culling their populations.

By 1920, wild turkeys had essentially lost half their ancestral range, limited to just 18 continental US States. Their population numbers by that time were thought to number close to 30,000 or less, putting the non-domestic subspecies in critical danger.

Turkey Conservation and Restoration

By the early 20th century, turkeys were not doing well. Thankfully, a number of changes in the political, cultural, and economic landscape of America would turn their fate around.

Conservationists were very concerned about the state of nature and wildlife in the US. They led efforts to begin creating protected natural areas, as well as advocating for, creating, and enforcing game laws. However, these changes weren’t enough on their own. Luckily–for both turkeys and conservationists–nature was laying some of the foundations for restoring habitats for threatened species.

In the Eastern US, abandoned farmland was turning back over to nature. The local ecology was turning these unused farmlands back into woodlands quickly, preparing room for the return of wild turkeys. Meanwhile, human efforts were also creating more turkey habitat. In the New Deal, President Franklin D. Roosevelt set out to remedy the environmental breakdowns that had caused the infamous Dust Bowl. Through new approaches to agricultural management and reforestation, the region’s environment was largely recovered by the early 1940s.

Reintroduction programs were established to encourage wild turkeys back into their ancestral ranges. Innovations in trapping technologies like cannon nets helped conservationists capture turkeys from regions where they were still thriving. This allowed conservationists to move them into reforested areas without disrupting any vulnerable regions. Political funding and support bolstered these efforts. The Pittman-Robertson Act of 1937 placed excise taxes on sporting goods, providing the seed money for these and other wide-scale restoration activities. Political action, in concert with shifts in American culture prioritizing land and conservation ethics, would jumpstart wildlife restoration programs for years to come.

Because of the hard work of conservationists, wild turkeys have rebounded with incredible success. Today turkeys have returned to all of their ancestral range, and their population numbers are estimated somewhere between 6-7 million. While the population numbers of some subspecies are still low, all have returned in greater numbers to their ancestral ranges.

The Most American Bird?

There is no America without the wild turkey. Throughout their evolution, they survived hardship after hardship. When ancient peoples came to the New World, turkeys were vital to them as food and religious icons. And although early American settlers decimated their populations, turkeys helped sustain a growing nation. When we realized what we’d done, we leveraged our political and cultural wills to keep them from going extinct. As a result, wild turkeys are as abundant as ever.

The wild turkey’s importance to American culture and ecology is even more apparent today. Without romanticizing too much, they’re perhaps the most emblematic of what America is all about: perseverance, endurance, community, and stewardship. We owe a lot to these birds and must continue to care for them–now, and for years to come.

Collage image credits, top left to bottom right: Wikimedia Commons (public domain); Wikimedia Commons (public domain); Greg Shechter, Wikimedia Commons (CC BY 2.0); Heather Paul, Flickr (CC BY-ND 2.0); Jessica Reeder, Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 2.0); Buck Valley Ranch, Flickr (CC BY 2.0).

References/Further Reading:

Dickson, James G. The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1992.

Farner, Donald Sankey, James Roger King, and Kenneth C. Parkes. Avian Biology. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1974.

Habel, Jan Christian, and Thorsten Assmann. Relict Species Phylogeography and Conservation Biology. Berlin: Springer Berlin, 2014.

Miller, Matthew L., Justine E. Hausheer, Joe Smith, and Christine Peterson. “Wild Turkey Restoration: The Greatest Conservation Success Story?” Cool Green Science. November 16, 2015. Accessed November 24, 2018. https://blog.nature.org/science/2013/11/26/wild-turkey-restoration-the-greatest-conservation-success-story/.

Naish, Darren. “The Other Turkey.” Tetrapod Zoology. January 16, 2013. Accessed November 24, 2018. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/the-other-turkey/.

Nield, David. “Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating.” January 21, 2018. Accessed November 24, 2018. https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat.

Padilla-Jacobo, Gabriela, Horacio Cano-Camacho, Rigoberto López-Zavala, María E. Cornejo-Pérez, and María G. Zavala-Páramo. “Evolutionary History of Mexican Domesticated and Wild Meleagris Gallopavo.” Genetics Selection Evolution 50, no. 1 (April 17, 2018). Accessed November 24, 2018. doi:10.1186/s12711-018-0388-8.

Smith, Andrew F. The Turkey: An American Story. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2009.

Thornton, Erin Kennedy, and Kitty F. Emery. “The Uncertain Origins of Mesoamerican Turkey Domestication.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24, no. 2 (December 11, 2015): 328-51. Accessed November 24, 2018. doi:10.1007/s10816-015-9269-4.